Exosomes are small membrane vesicles secreted by most cell types. Internal vesicles form by the inward budding of cellular compartments known as multivesicular endosomes (MVE). When MVE fuse with the plasma membrane, these internal vesicles are relea
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A powerful new X-ray–generating laser is imaging smaller crystals than ever before.
When someone snorts or smokes cocaine, which is composed of small crystalline alkaloid molecules, the drug enters the bloodstream and from there eventually crosses into the heart, brain, and other organs. Cocaine quickens heart and respiratory rates,
Like other enveloped viruses, HIV exits its host cell enshrouded in the cell’s membrane, which contains membrane molecules such as the human leukocyte antigens (HLA). The HLA proteins act as a set of cell identification marks: every person expresses
The Last Vaccine Frontier: Successful vaccines have been created to protect against pathogenic bacteria and viruses. Why aren’t there any for combating fungal infections? Read the Full Story
For years researchers believed that any effective antifungal vaccine would have to induce the production of antibodies. Research studies have now shown that the cellular immune responses mediated by Th1 and Th17 cytokines are just as important. R
The growth plate is divided into several distinct regions, each populated with cartilage cells (chondrocytes) displaying characteristic behaviors. Nearest the heads of the bone is a germinal zone containing stem cells, below which is a zone of prolif
Mitochondria combine hydrogen derived from dietary carbohydrates and fats with oxygen to generate heat and ATP. Electrons flowing through the electron transport chain, made up of OXPHOS complexes I through V, are used to pump protons out of the mitoc
Clostridium difficile is a spore-forming, gram-positive bacterium that can cause disease when ingested. While stomach acids kill most of the bacteria, the spores can withstand the harsh gastric environment, passing through to the intestines where the
Antigen-presenting cells, such as macrophages or dendritic cells, elicit an immune response by displaying tumor antigens bound to the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) to circulating T-cells. Simultaneous T-cell recognition of glycoproteins CD80
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